Attribution Theory was examined in the previous article in this Understanding Motivation in Games series. The current article will focus on Self-Efficacy Theory and its application in game research.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1977) hypothesizes individuals expectations of personal efficacy influences their choices of activities and settings, amount of effort to be invested and level of persistence in the activities. Expectations of efficacy can be distinguished between outcome expectations and efficacy expectations. Outcome expectations are individual’s beliefs of certain behaviors which will lead to expected outcomes, whereas efficacy expectations are beliefs that an individual’s ability to execute certain actions to achieve the expected outcomes or goals. Efficacy expectations are key determinant in influencing behaviors (Figure 1). However, efficacy expectations cannot influence behaviors alone without appropriate supporting elements such as skills and incentives. Specifically, perceived self efficacy influences initial choices of activities, while effort to be exerted and the level of persistence will be determined through efficacy expectations.
Figure 1. Influence of efficacy expectations and outcome expectations.
Four principal sources of efficacy information are identified for influencing expectations of personal efficacy, including performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological states. Performance accomplishments is based on an individual’s performance and experience, which is the most reliable and influential efficacy information among the four sources. Successes enhance self-efficacy, while failures lower the efficacy expectations. Vicarious experience is produced by observing others perform. Individuals generate efficacy expectations through inference and social comparison. This source of efficacy information is considered to be less reliable when compared to performance accomplishments. Verbal persuasion such as suggestion can influence efficacy expectations positively. Similar to vicarious experience, perceptions of performance capabilities generate by verbal persuasion is often less reliable than expectations produce by performance accomplishments. Lastly, physiological states can provide valuable information regarding self-efficacy. Physiological arousal such as stress and anxiety can be interpreted as a lack of skills, which can impact perceived self-efficacy negatively. For example, positive feedback in a role play game can increase player’s perceived self-efficacy, which in turn can improve persistency, performance and mastery expectations. The enhanced self-efficacy may generalize to other game genres or situations, where players will be more confident in accepting new challenges, and with a higher level of persistence.
Self-Efficacy Theory and Game Motivation Research
Researchers have applied Self-Efficacy Theory in game research with various emphases, from investigating game enjoyment (Klimmt & Hartmann, 2006; Vorderer, Hartmann, & Klimmt, 2003), academic performance (Hung, Huang, & Hwang, 2014; Meluso, Zheng, Spires, & Lester, 2012), to guiding game design process (Backlund, Engström, Johannesson, Lebram, & Sjödén, 2008; Thompson et al., 2010).
In a game research study by Trepte and Reinecke (2011), the relationship between game performance, enjoyment and self-efficacy in a jump and run game was examined among adult participants. Participants were instructed to play the game for 30 min. Game performance was assessed using game logs, while enjoyment and self-efficacy were measured by self-report questionnaires. Results indicated game performance and game enjoyment were mediated by game related efficacy experience, that is, accomplishment, competence and control in the game environment. The authors concluded self-efficacy was an important theoretical construct for explaining and understanding player experience and motivation in games.
In sum, Self-Efficacy Theory allows game researchers and designers to understand how game design elements and events can enhance player’s perceived self-efficacy and performance, which are crucial for facilitating a positive, enjoyable and motivating game experience.
References
Backlund, P., Engström, H., Johannesson, M., Lebram, M., & Sjödén, B. (2008, July). Designing for self-efficacy in a game based simulator: An experimental study and its implications for serious games design. In 2008 International Conference Visualisation (pp. 106-113). IEEE.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological review, 84(2), 191.
Hung, C. M., Huang, I., & Hwang, G. J. (2014). Effects of digital game-based learning on students’ self-efficacy, motivation, anxiety, and achievements in learning mathematics. Journal of Computers in Education, 1(2-3), 151-166.
Klimmt, C., & Hartmann, T. (2006). Effectance, self-efficacy, and the motivation to play video games. Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences, 133-145.
Meluso, A., Zheng, M., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. (2012). Enhancing 5th graders’ science content knowledge and self-efficacy through game-based learning. Computers & Education, 59(2), 497-504.
Thompson, D., Baranowski, T., Buday, R., Baranowski, J., Thompson, V., Jago, R., & Griffith, M. J. (2010). Serious video games for health: How behavioral science guided the development of a serious video game. Simulation & gaming, 41(4), 587-606.
Trepte, S., & Reinecke, L. (2011). The pleasures of success: Game-related efficacy experiences as a mediator between player performance and game enjoyment. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(9), 555-557.
Vorderer, P., Hartmann, T., & Klimmt, C. (2003, May). Explaining the enjoyment of playing video games: the role of competition. In Proceedings of the second international conference on Entertainment computing (pp. 1-9).
